Lesson 2: Etiological Factors and Clinical Assessment of Mental Disorders (NOTES)

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B.A (HONS.) PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER IV – UNDERSTANDING MENTAL DISORDER | UNIT 1, Lesson 2: Etiological Factors and Clinical Assessment of Mental Disorders | Simplified Notes

2 Introduction

Mental disorders do not occur due to a single cause.

Modern psychology believes that mental illness develops because of the interaction between:

  • Biological factors
  • Psychological factors
  • Social and cultural factors

This approach is called the:

Biopsychosocial Model

Mental disorders are therefore:

  • Complex
  • Multi-causal
  • Influenced by environment and biology together

Etiology of Mental Disorders

Meaning of Etiology

Etiology means:

The study of causes and origins of mental disorders.

Psychologists study:

  • Why disorders develop
  • How they progress
  • What factors increase risk

Major Causal Factors

Mental disorders may arise due to:

Biological FactorsPsychological FactorsSociocultural Factors
GeneticsTraumaPoverty
Brain abnormalitiesStressFamily conflict
NeurotransmittersMaladaptive thinkingSocial isolation
Hormonal imbalanceLearning experiencesDiscrimination

2.3 Diathesis-Stress Model

One of the most important modern explanations of mental disorders.

Meaning

The Diathesis-Stress Model states:

Mental disorders develop when a person with a biological or psychological vulnerability experiences stressful life events.

Components of the Model

1. Diathesis (Predisposition)

Diathesis means:

  • Vulnerability
  • Tendency
  • Weakness

This may be:

  • Genetic
  • Biological
  • Psychological

Examples:

  • Family history of depression
  • Sensitive personality
  • Weak coping skills

2. Stress

Stress refers to:

  • Environmental pressures
  • Life difficulties
  • Traumatic experiences

Examples:

  • Divorce
  • Failure
  • Abuse
  • Financial problems
  • Death of loved ones

How the Model Works

Formula:

Predisposition + Stress = Disorder

A person may carry vulnerability for years, but the disorder appears only after severe stress.

Example

Suppose:

  • Two students fail an exam.
  • One becomes severely depressed.
  • The other recovers normally.

Reason:
The depressed student may already have:

  • Genetic vulnerability
  • Poor coping skills

Thus:
Stress triggered the disorder.

Importance of Diathesis-Stress Model

  • Explains why everyone exposed to stress does not become mentally ill
  • Integrates biological and environmental factors
  • Widely used in clinical psychology

2.4 Biological Viewpoint and Biological Causal Factors

The biological viewpoint explains mental disorders through:

  • Brain functioning
  • Genetics
  • Neurochemistry
  • Hormones
  • Physical illness

Main Biological Factors

1. Genetic Factors

Mental disorders often run in families.

This suggests:

  • Heredity influences psychological disorders.

Evidence from Research

Family Studies

Disorders are more common among relatives.

Example:

  • Schizophrenia risk increases in biological relatives.

Twin Studies

Identical twins show higher similarity in mental disorders than fraternal twins.

Because:

  • Identical twins share 100% genes.

Adoption Studies

Children adopted away from biological parents may still develop similar disorders.

This supports genetic influence.

Important Point

Genes do not directly cause disorders.

They:

  • Increase vulnerability
  • Interact with environment

2. Brain Dysfunction and Neural Damage

Abnormal behavior may result from:

  • Brain injury
  • Structural abnormalities
  • Dysfunction in brain areas

Important Brain Areas

Brain AreaFunctionDisorder if Affected
Frontal LobeThinking, planningImpulsivity
Limbic SystemEmotionsAnxiety, depression
Temporal LobeMemoryHallucinations
CerebellumCoordinationMotor issues

Example

Damage to frontal lobe may cause:

  • Aggression
  • Poor judgment
  • Personality changes

3. Neurotransmitter Imbalance

Neurotransmitters are:

Chemical messengers in the brain.

Mental disorders may occur when neurotransmitters are:

  • Too high
  • Too low
  • Improperly functioning

Major Neurotransmitters

NeurotransmitterFunctionDisorder Association
DopaminePleasure, movementSchizophrenia
SerotoninMoodDepression
NorepinephrineAlertnessAnxiety
GABARelaxationAnxiety disorders

Example

Low serotonin is linked with:

  • Depression
  • Suicidal thoughts

4. Hormonal Factors

Hormones influence:

  • Mood
  • Stress response
  • Emotions

Important Hormones

HormoneFunction
CortisolStress hormone
Thyroid hormonesEnergy regulation
Estrogen/TestosteroneEmotional functioning

Example

Excess cortisol due to chronic stress may contribute to:

  • Anxiety
  • Depression

5. Physical Illness and Infection

Certain physical diseases can produce psychological symptoms.

Examples:

  • Brain tumors
  • Epilepsy
  • HIV/AIDS
  • Thyroid disorders

Biological Treatments

Based on biological viewpoint:

  • Medication
  • Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
  • Brain stimulation
    are used.

2.5 Psychological Viewpoints

Psychological viewpoints explain disorders through:

  • Thoughts
  • Emotions
  • Learning
  • Experiences

Major Psychological Perspectives

1. Psychodynamic Viewpoint

Developed by:
Sigmund Freud

Main Idea

Mental disorders result from:

  • Unconscious conflicts
  • Childhood experiences
  • Repressed emotions

Important Concepts

ConceptMeaning
IdPrimitive desires
EgoReality-oriented thinking
SuperegoMoral values

Anxiety arises when:

  • Inner conflicts become too strong.

Defense Mechanisms

The ego uses defense mechanisms to reduce anxiety.

Examples:

  • Repression
  • Denial
  • Projection

Example

A person who experienced childhood trauma may develop anxiety later in life.

2. Behavioral Viewpoint

Behaviorists believe:

Abnormal behavior is learned.

Main Principles

Behavior develops through:

  • Conditioning
  • Reinforcement
  • Observation

Classical Conditioning

Developed by:
Ivan Pavlov

Fear can become associated with neutral objects.

Example:

A dog bite may create lifelong fear of dogs.

Operant Conditioning

Developed by:
B. F. Skinner

Behavior is strengthened by:

  • Rewards
  • Punishments

Observational Learning

Developed by:
Albert Bandura

People learn by watching others.

Example

Children observing aggressive parents may become aggressive.

3. Cognitive Viewpoint

Focuses on:

  • Thinking patterns
  • Beliefs
  • Interpretations

Main Idea

Distorted thinking causes emotional problems.

Examples of Cognitive Distortions

DistortionExample
Catastrophizing“Everything is ruined.”
Overgeneralization“I always fail.”
Negative thinking“Nobody likes me.”

Example

A depressed person may:

  • Interpret neutral events negatively.

Cognitive Therapy

Developed by:
Aaron Beck

Therapy changes:

  • Irrational thoughts
  • Negative beliefs

4. Humanistic Viewpoint

Humanistic psychologists believe:

  • Humans naturally seek growth.

Disorders arise when:

  • Self-development is blocked.

Carl Rogers’ Theory

Carl Rogers

People suffer when:

  • Real self ≠ Ideal self

This creates:

  • Incongruence
  • Low self-esteem

Maslow’s Theory

Abraham Maslow

Failure to achieve self-actualization may create emotional problems.

2.6 Sociocultural Viewpoints

This viewpoint emphasizes:

  • Society
  • Culture
  • Social environment

Major Sociocultural Factors

1. Poverty

Poverty increases:

  • Stress
  • Malnutrition
  • Lack of healthcare

Thus increasing mental illness risk.

2. Family Relationships

Conflictual family environments may contribute to:

  • Anxiety
  • Depression
  • Conduct problems

3. Social Isolation

Loneliness and lack of support increase vulnerability.

4. Discrimination and Prejudice

Social rejection may contribute to:

  • Low self-esteem
  • Depression
  • Trauma

5. Cultural Expectations

Different cultures define:

  • Normality
  • Emotional expression
  • Coping differently

Example

Some cultures encourage emotional suppression, which may affect psychological health.

2.7 Introduction to Clinical Assessment

Clinical assessment is:

The process of collecting information about a person to understand and diagnose mental disorders.

Goals of Clinical Assessment

  • Identify symptoms
  • Determine diagnosis
  • Plan treatment
  • Predict future behavior

Sources of Information

Assessment includes:

  • Interviews
  • Observation
  • Tests
  • Medical history

Characteristics of Good Assessment

1. Reliability

Assessment should produce consistent results.

2. Validity

Assessment should measure what it claims to measure.

3. Standardization

Uniform procedures should be followed.

2.8 Psychological Assessment

Psychological assessment uses tests and techniques to evaluate mental functioning.

Major Methods

1. Clinical Interview

Most common assessment technique.

Types

TypeFeatures
StructuredFixed questions
UnstructuredFlexible conversation
Semi-structuredCombination

Purpose

To gather:

  • Symptoms
  • Personal history
  • Emotional state
  • Relationships

2. Behavioral Assessment

Observes actual behavior directly.

Techniques

  • Observation
  • Self-monitoring
  • Behavior rating scales

Example

A therapist may observe:

  • Social interaction
  • Aggression
  • Anxiety symptoms

3. Psychological Testing

Standardized tools used to assess:

  • Intelligence
  • Personality
  • Emotional functioning

Types of Tests

(a) Intelligence Tests

Measure:

  • Cognitive abilities
  • IQ

Example:

  • Stanford-Binet Test
  • WAIS

(b) Personality Tests

Assess personality traits and conflicts.

Objective Tests

Fixed-response format.

Example:

  • MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

Projective Tests

Person interprets ambiguous stimuli.

Examples:

  • Rorschach Inkblot Test
  • TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

Advantages of Psychological Tests

  • Standardized
  • Scientific
  • Helpful in diagnosis

Limitations

  • Cultural bias
  • Subjective interpretation
  • Dependence on cooperation

2.9 Neurobiological Assessment

These methods assess:

  • Brain structure
  • Brain functioning
  • Nervous system activity

Major Neurobiological Techniques

1. CT Scan (Computed Tomography)

Uses X-rays to create brain images.

Detects:

  • Tumors
  • Brain damage

2. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Provides detailed brain images.

Used to detect:

  • Structural abnormalities

3. PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

Measures brain activity and metabolism.

Used in:

  • Schizophrenia
  • Alzheimer’s disease

4. EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Measures electrical brain activity.

Useful for:

  • Epilepsy
  • Sleep disorders

Importance of Neurobiological Assessment

Helps:

Improve treatment planning

Identify biological abnormalities

Differentiate medical from psychological causes