Lesson 1 – Personality (Notes), Psychology of Individual & Differences

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• Concept of Personality

The term “personality” comes from the Latin word “Persona,” meaning a mask worn by Roman theatrical actors. Personality is the sum total of inner and outer qualities that interact with social situations, leading to certain behaviors. Gordon W. Allport defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the environment.” Personality is a product of both heredity and environment (nature and nurture).

• Biological Foundation of Personality

  • Personalities are the sum of genetics and environment.
  • Genes have about a 50% impact on personality.
  • The nervous system, hormones, and neurotransmitters play a role.
  • Brain regions like the Amygdala and Hypothalamus are important.

• Major Approaches to Personality

  • Different theories and approaches explain personality development, differences, consistencies, and changes.
  • Approaches are based on different models or schools of psychology.
  • Major approaches include: Trait, Psychodynamic, Social-Cognitive, and Phenomenological-Humanistic.

➥ 1.Trait Approach

  • Identifies and quantifies different personality traits.
  • Traits are specific psychological attributes.
  • Theories are sometimes called Psychometric Theories.
  • Includes: Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory, Raymond Cattell’s Personality Factors Theory, Eysenck’s Trait-Dimensional Theory, and the Big Five Factor Model.
  • Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory:
    • Traits are determining tendencies.
    • Hierarchy of traits: Cardinal, Central, and Secondary.
      • Cardinal Traits: Dominant traits influencing most aspects of behavior (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Violence).
      • Central Traits: General characteristics found in varying degrees in every person.
      • Secondary Traits: More specific attitudes and preferences.
    • Genotypes and phenotypes influence behavior and personality.
  • Raymond Cattell’s Personality Factors Theory:
    • Common structure on which people differ.
    • 16 primary or source traits.
    • Source traits are stable and building blocks of personality (e.g., Warmth, Reasoning, Perfectionism, Tension).
    • Surface traits result from the interaction of source traits.
    • 16 Personality Factors Questionnaire assesses these traits.
  • Eysenck’s Trait-Dimensional Theory/Eysenck’s Hierarchical Theory:
    • Focuses on biological dimensions of personality.
    • Three major dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.
      • Introversion vs. Extraversion: Socially withdrawn vs. socially outgoing.
      • Emotional Stability vs. Neuroticism: Stable vs. moody, anxious.
      • Psychoticism vs. Sociability/Impulse control: Lack of feeling for others vs. cooperative, empathetic.
    • Eysenck Personality Questionnaire measures these dimensions.
  • Big Five Factor Model of Personality:
    • Five major personality factors (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
      • Openness to Experience: Willingness to try new things.
      • Conscientiousness: Organizational skills and motivation.
      • Extraversion: Outgoing vs. passive, reserved.
      • Agreeableness: Easy-going and good-hearted.
      • Neuroticism: Emotional stability or instability.
    • NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI) is a reliable source for measuring personality based on this model.

➥ 2.Psychodynamic Approach

  • Sigmund Freud formed the basis.
  • Important concepts: childhood experiences, instincts, and unconscious motivation.
  • Direction of behavior influenced by instincts, environment, and social prohibitions.
  • Four important parts: Structure of Mind, Structure of Personality, Defense Mechanisms, and Psychosexual Stages of Development.
    • Structure of Mind:
      • Compared the human mind to an iceberg.
      • Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious Mind.
        • Conscious Mind: Awareness at any point in time.
        • Preconscious Mind: Information that can be retrieved with effort.
        • Unconscious Mind: Hidden thoughts and desires.
    • Structure of Personality:
      • Id, Ego, and Superego.
        • Id: Biological drives, operates on the Pleasure Principle.
        • Ego: Rational part, operates on the Reality Principle.
        • Superego: Conscience, morals, and values, operates on the Morality Principle.
    • Defense Mechanisms:
      • Mental activities that prevent anxiety (e.g., Repression, Rationalization, Projection, Denial, Regression, Reaction Formation, Displacement, Sublimation).
    • Psychosexual Stages of Development:
      • Oral (0-1 year), Anal (1-3 years), Phallic (3-6 years), Latency (6-12 years), and Genital (12 to adulthood) stages.
      • Conflicts at each stage can lead to fixation.
      • Oral Stage: Focus of pleasure is the mouth.
      • Anal Stage: Focus of pleasure is bowel movements.
      • Phallic Stage: Pleasure zone shifts to genitals; Oedipus and Electra complexes.
      • Latency Stage: Sexual instincts remain repressed.
      • Genital Stage: Resurfacing of sex drive.
  • Neo-Freudian’s/Post-Freudian’s (e.g., Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson) built on Freud’s theories.
    • Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology, Collective Unconscious, Archetypes.
    • Karen Horney: Interpersonal Theory, challenged Freud’s view on women.
    • Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology, striving for superiority.
    • Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development, stages over the lifespan, Identity Crisis.

➥ 3.Social-Cognitive Approach

  • Focuses on measurable aspects of personality.
  • Personality is the response to the environment.
  • Includes: Skinner’s Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
    • Skinner’s Behaviorism:
      • Role of consequence of behavior.
      • Operant Conditioning, Reinforcement, and Punishment.
    • Bandura’s Social Learning Theory:
      • Learning by observing others (Modeling).
      • Reciprocal Determinism, Self-Efficacy.
    • Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda — The Cognitive Effective Personality System (CAPS):
      • CAPS consists of 5 variables interacting with the environment, generating distinctive behavior patterns.
      • These variables are Encoding Strategies, Expectancies and Beliefs, Goals and Values, Affect, Competencies, and Self-regulatory behavior.

➥ 4.Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach

  • Emphasizes the immediate conscious experience.
  • Views humans as inherently positive.
  • Focuses on the present, personal responsibility, personal growth, and improvement.
  • Includes: George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory and Carl Rogers’ Self Theory.
    • George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory:
      • Importance of personal meaning.
      • Personal constructs are cognitive categories.
    • Carl Rogers’ Self Theory:
      • Self, Real Self, Ideal Self, Congruence.
      • Fully Functioning Person, Positive Regard, Unconditional Positive Regard.

• Culture, Gender, and Personality

  • Biological and environmental factors impact personality.
  • Culture influences how we perceive, relate, and behave.
  • Includes physical, social, and religious aspects.
  • Tightness and complexity of culture.
  • Collectivistic vs. individualistic cultures.
  • Gender schemas: organized cognitive structures for understanding gender roles.

➥ Gender schemas

  • Organized cognitive structure that contains our understanding of attributes, beliefs, norms and behaviours that are expected from males and females in a particular society.
  • Influences personality and behaviour.