Lesson 2 – Self and Identity

/

• Introduction

Understanding the self and identity is central to social psychology because our self-concept influences how we interact with others and perceive ourselves in society. Self and identity are dynamic constructs shaped by internal thoughts and emotions, as well as by social contexts, cultural norms, and interpersonal relationships.

• Self and Identity

  • Self: The totality of an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors about themselves. It includes both conscious and unconscious attributes.
  • Identity: Refers to how individuals define themselves in relation to groups and society. It provides a sense of who they are and how they fit into the world.

➥ Key Points:

  • In medieval times, identities were fixed based on social hierarchies (Baumeister, 1987).
  • The modern concept of the self emerged with industrialization, enlightenment, secularization, and psychoanalysis.
  • Identity helps people predict others’ responses and guides social interactions.

• Origins of Self

Historical Developments:

  • 1750 (Industrialization): Shift from artisanal to mechanized production led to mobile identities as people moved for work.
  • Enlightenment and Secularization: Focused on individual fulfillment in the present life rather than religious obligations.
  • Psychoanalysis (Freud, early 20th century): Revealed the complexity of the self, emphasizing unconscious influences.

➥ Key Contributions:

  • Gabriel Tarde (1898): Advocated for understanding individual psychology to explain social behavior.
  • William McDougall (1908): Highlighted instinct-based explanations of the self.

• Personal and Social Identity

Definitions:

  • Personal Identity: How individuals define themselves through unique traits, goals, and experiences.
  • Social Identity: Derived from group memberships (e.g., nationality, religion, gender) and the emotional significance attached to them (Tajfel, 1981).

➥ Key Points:

  • Personal identity focuses on uniqueness, while social identity emphasizes shared group characteristics.
  • Identity salience depends on the situation:
  • – Personal Identity Salience: Highlights individual differences.
  • – Social Identity Salience: Emphasizes group membership.
  • Trafimow et al. (1997): Bilingual Hong Kong students described themselves differently in English (personal attributes) versus Chinese (group affiliations).

• Aspects of Self

The self has multiple facets that work together to form a cohesive identity:

➥ Self-Knowledge:

Definition:

The awareness of one’s own traits, emotions, and behaviors.

Sources of Self-Knowledge:

  1. Behavioral Observation:
    • Bem’s (1972) Self-Perception Theory: Individuals infer their attitudes by observing their behavior, especially when internal cues are weak.
  2. Reflected Appraisal:
    • Cooley’s (1902) “Looking Glass Self”: People form self-concepts based on how they believe others perceive them.
  3. Explicit Feedback:
    • Parents’ and peers’ evaluations shape self-views (Felson & Reed, 1986).
  4. Social Comparison:
    • Comparing oneself to others to gauge abilities (Festinger, 1954).
  5. Emotional Tagging:
    • Schachter’s (1962) Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: Physiological arousal combined with situational cues informs self-knowledge.

➥ Self-Esteem:

Definition:

An individual’s overall evaluation of their worth.

Types of Self-Esteem:
  • Trait Self-Esteem: Stable and long-term sense of worth.
  • State Self-Esteem: Fluctuates based on circumstances (e.g., success or failure).
Dimensions:
  • Self-Competence: Belief in one’s abilities.
  • Self-Liking: Emotional evaluation of oneself.
Key Studies:
  • Taylor & Brown (1988): Positive illusions contribute to mental health and motivation.
  • Bosson et al. (2002): Implicit self-esteem reveals unconscious self-evaluations.
Self-Serving Biases:
  • Overestimating one’s positive traits while minimizing flaws (Greenwald, 2002).

➥ Self-Regulation:

Definition:

The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve goals.

Processes:
  • Setting goals and monitoring progress.
  • Overcoming impulses and distractions.
Key Concept:
  • Baumeister et al. (1998): Self-regulation relies on limited cognitive resources.

➥ Self-Presentation:

Definition:

Deliberate efforts to control how others perceive us.

Types:
  • Authentic Self-Presentation: Genuinely expressing oneself.
  • Strategic Self-Presentation: Tailoring behavior to achieve specific outcomes.
Common Strategies:
  • Ingratiation (seeking approval).
  • Self-promotion (highlighting strengths).
  • Exemplification (displaying moral integrity).

➥ Impression Management:

Definition:

Techniques used to influence how others perceive us, closely related to self-presentation.

Key Theorist:
  • Erving Goffman (1959): Described social interaction as a theatrical performance with front-stage and back-stage behaviors.
Common Techniques:
  • Aligning Actions: Justifying questionable behavior.
  • Altercasting: Assigning roles to others to shape perceptions.

• Gender and Self

Key Points:

  • Gender roles shape identity and influence how individuals express themselves.
  • Gender Stereotypes: Cultural norms dictate “appropriate” behaviors for men and women.
  • Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977): Children learn gender roles through observation and imitation.

• Culture and Self

Independent vs. Interdependent Self:

  • Markus & Kitayama (1991):
    • Independent Self (Western cultures): Emphasizes individuality and personal goals.
    • Interdependent Self (Eastern cultures): Focuses on social harmony and group goals.

Cultural Influences:

  • Norms regarding expression of emotions, communication styles, and identity formation vary across cultures.

• Conclusion

Self and identity are central to understanding human behavior in social contexts. These constructs are shaped by personal experiences, social relationships, cultural norms, and gender expectations. Both the personal and social aspects of identity influence how people perceive themselves and interact with the world.

★ Important names and dates

  • Cooley (1902): Looking Glass Self.
  • Gabriel Tarde (1898): Social behavior through individual psychology.
  • William McDougall (1908): Instinct theory of social behavior.
  • Festinger (1954): Social Comparison Theory.
  • Bem (1972): Self-Perception Theory.
  • Markus & Kitayama (1991): Cultural differences in self-concept.
  • Taylor & Brown (1988): Positive illusions and self-esteem.
  • Schachter (1962): Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.
  • Goffman (1959): Impression management through social performances.
  • Bandura (1977): Social Learning Theory.